. Contrary to popular belief, individuals undergoing hypnosis usually have clear memories of the hypnotic experience and are in control of their own behaviors. Popular portrayals of hypnosis have led to some widely-held misconceptions. For example, she and her colleagues published a study in which women going through divorce were asked several times over a five-month period to report the degree to which their former spouses were on their minds. In fact, this relationship is so robust that some view the presence of RBD as a potential aid in the diagnosis and treatment of a number of neurodegenerative diseases (Ferini-Strambi, 2011). High doses increase agitation, paranoia, can cause hallucinations. Like many other stimulants, cocaine agonizes the dopamine neurotransmitter system by blocking the reuptake of dopamine in the neuronal synapse. (a) A period of rapid eye movement is marked by the short red line segment. For example, Hobson (2009) suggests that dreaming may represent a state of protoconsciousness. c. absence of subjective symptoms of disease. While we certainly welcome the convenience of having the darkness lit up, we also suffer the consequences of reduced amounts of sleep because we are more active during the nighttime hours than our ancestors were. a. will be healthier than children because they are exposed to fewer infectious diseases.b. Vaping as a means to deliver nicotine is becoming increasingly popular, especially among teens and young adults. Drugwithdrawalincludes a variety of negative symptoms experienced when drug use is discontinued. Vaping uses battery-powered devices, sometimes called e-cigarettes, that deliver liquid nicotine and flavorings as a vapor. The three types of sleep apnea are central apnea, obstructive apnea (OSA), and a mixture of central and obstructive apnea. One of the nurses said, If youve had a partner who does work regular job 9 to 5 office hours . Jet lagis a collection of symptoms that results from the mismatch between our internal circadian cycles and our environment. The prevalence rates for somatic disorders are often difficult to determine; however, overall estimates of somatic symptom disorder are around 4-6%. Furthermore, these types of behaviors ultimately disrupt sleep, although affected individuals have no memories that these behaviors have occurred (Arnulf, 2012). Delusions. Taking a different approach to explain hypnosis, the social-cognitive theory of hypnosis sees people in hypnotic states as performing the social role of a hypnotized person. They were ALL my fault. In the central nervous system, it plays a role in arousal and reward mechanisms. Sleep apnea is defined as a reduction or cessation of breathing during sleep. Repeated use of these stimulants can have significant adverse consequences. If you lie down to take a nap and fall asleep very easily, chances are you may have sleep debt. Opioids have analgesic properties; that is, they decrease pain. Unfortunately, this is not the case; however, several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the function of sleep. Freud made distinctions between the manifest content and the latent content of dreams. It is administered alone or in conjunction with doses of melatonin (the hormone secreted by the pineal gland). Instead, sleep is composed of several different stages that can be differentiated from one another by the patterns of brain wave activity that occur during each stage. To date, people have used a variety ofnicotinereplacement therapies in addition to various psychotherapeutic options in an attempt to discontinue their use of tobacco products. Furthermore, slow-wave sleep after learning a new task can improve resultant performance on that task (Huber, Ghilardi, Massimini, & Tononi, 2004) and seems essential for effective memory formation (Stickgold, 2005). Acontinuous positive airway pressure (CPAP)device includes a mask that fits over the sleepers nose and mouth, which is connected to a pump that pumps air into the persons airways, forcing them to remain open, as shown inFigure 4.13. Lucid dreamsare dreams in which certain aspects of wakefulness are maintained during a dream state. Our experiences change dramatically while we are in deep sleep and once again when we are dreaming. It is much more difficult to awaken someone from sleep during stage 3 than during earlier stages. People who suffer from insomnia might limit their use of stimulant drugs (such as caffeine) or increase their amount of physical exercise during the day. In the wake of the opiate epidemic, many drug cartels in Mexico are shifting from producing heroin to producing highly potent but inexpensive forms of methamphetamine. This is similar to the kind of paralysis experienced by healthy individuals during REM sleep (Burgess & Scammell, 2012; Hishikawa & Shimizu, 1995; Luppi et al., 2011). Another evolutionary hypothesis of sleep holds that our sleep patterns evolved as an adaptive response to predatory risks, which increase in darkness. However, when a stimulant drug was used in conjunction with a popular antidepressant, her condition improved dramatically. Melatonin release is stimulated by darkness and inhibited by light. (credit a: modification of work by Jim Epler; credit b: modification of work by Caleb Roenigk), video about circadian rhythms and how they affect sleep, video that gives sleep tips for college students, video about the relationship between sleep and memory, instructional video about using Buddhist meditation techniques to alleviate stress, video about the results of a brain imaging study in individuals who underwent specific mindfulness meditative techniques, https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction, Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, Cocaine, amphetamines (including some ADHD medications such as Adderall), methamphetamines, MDMA (Ecstasy or Molly), Increased heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature. The average EVD case fatality rate is around 50%. Infants should not have caps placed on their heads when put down to sleep in order to prevent overheating, and people in the childs household should abstain from smoking in the home. It is also associated with paralysis of muscle systems in the body with the exception of those that make circulation and respiration possible. In her case, the fact that her cataplexy was confined to the right side of her body was quite unusual. These behaviors vary widely, but they can include kicking, punching, scratching, yelling, and behaving like an animal that has been frightened or attacked. However, for some, its not because of all-night partying or late-night study sessions. One hypothesis from this perspective might argue that sleep is essential to restore resources that are expended during the day. Caffeine is an adenosine antagonist, so caffeine inhibits the adenosine receptors, thus decreasing sleepiness and promoting wakefulness. However, alternative treatment options are being explored because consistent compliance by users of CPAP devices is a problem. Signs and Symptoms | Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever | CDC There was a significant positive correlation between the degree to which women thought about their former spouses during waking hours and the number of times their former spouses appeared as characters in their dreams (Cartwright, Agargun, Kirkby, & Friedman, 2006). Awareness of external stimuli includes experiences such as seeing the light from the sun, feeling the warmth of a room, and hearing the voice of a friend. For example, withdrawal from sedative drugs often produces unpleasant arousal and agitation. They can be helpful for people working night shifts or for people affected by seasonal variations in light. Some research suggests that species that face higher predatory risks sleep fewer hours than other species (Capellini et al., 2008), while other researchers suggest there is no relationship between the amount of time a given species spends in deep sleep and its predation risk (Lesku, Roth, Amlaner, & Lima, 2006). Unexplained hemorrhaging, bleeding or bruising. The woman used caffeine in the past to boost her mood and to provide energy, but over the course of several years, she increased her caffeine consumption to the point that she was consuming three liters of soda each day. This disorder is associated with a number of neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinsons disease. This campaign is sponsored in part by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Peritonitis - Symptoms and causes - Mayo Clinic Comparative research indicates, however, that the relationship that exists between predatory risk and sleep is very complex and equivocal. In addition, stage 1 sleep involves a marked decrease in both overall muscle tension and core body temperature. In our discussion of the mental symptoms I reported as an illustration of the suggestive treatment of the drug passion the case of a morphinist. Nicotine is highly addictive, and the use of tobacco products is associated with increased risks of heart disease, stroke, and a variety of cancers. Sleepis a state marked by relatively low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness that is distinct from periods of rest that occur during wakefulness. Homeostatic regulation of sleep is evidenced by sleep rebound following sleep deprivation. If we have biological rhythms, then is there some sort ofbiological clock? While many users snort cocaine, intravenous injection and inhalation (smoking) are also common. While amphetamines are often abused, they are also commonly prescribed to children diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). In addition, if a pregnant woman consumes alcohol, her infant may be born with a cluster of birth defects and symptoms collectively called fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) or fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). While sleep apnea is less common in thin people, anyone, regardless of their weight, who snores loudly or gasps for air while sleeping, should be checked for sleep apnea. Pain relief, euphoria, sleepiness. As we move intostage 2 sleep, the body goes into a state of deep relaxation. For example, people who undergo chemotherapy will often be prescribed marijuana to stimulate their appetites and prevent excessive weight loss resulting from the side effects of chemotherapy treatment. Originally reported as a safe alternative to the known cancer-causing agents found in cigarettes, vaping is now known to be very dangerous and has led to serious lung disease and death in users. All of the following are true statements concerning the health of Americans EXCEPT: a. mortality rates from smoking have declined. You have read that the pineal gland releases melatonin during sleep (Figure 4.6). Medical marijuana is legal in over half of the United States and in the District of Columbia (Figure 4.19). Hypnosis in conjunction with other techniques is used for a variety of therapeutic purposes and has shown to be at least somewhat effective for pain management, treatment of depression and anxiety, smoking cessation, and weight loss (Alladin, 2012; Elkins, Johnson, & Fisher, 2012; Golden, 2012; Montgomery, Schnur, & Kravits, 2012). One important regulator of sleep-wake cycles is the hormonemelatonin. Latent content, on the other hand, refers to the hidden meaning of a dream. Homeostasis (article) | Human body systems | Khan Academy This pattern of brain wave activity resembles that of someone who is very relaxed, yet awake. The pineal and pituitary glands secrete a number of hormones during sleep. Awareness of internal stimuli includes feeling pain, hunger, thirst, sleepiness, and being aware of our thoughts and emotions. Interestingly, individuals who have increased levels of alpha brain wave activity (more often associated with wakefulness and transition into stage 1 sleep) during stage 3 often report that they do not feel refreshed upon waking, regardless of how long they slept (Stone, Taylor, McCrae, Kalsekar, & Lichstein, 2008). While there are variations, there are four parts that appear consistent in bringing people into the state of suggestibility associated with hypnosis (National Research Council, 1994). Psychometric analysis indicates that the ISS is composed of four principle components, producing four subscales. Describe the diagnostic criteria for substance use disorders, Identify the neurotransmitter systems impacted by various categories of drugs, Describe how different categories of drugs affect behavior and experience, Understand the similarities and differences of hypnosis and meditation. Access for free athttps://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction. The decade from 20102019 brought many changes in laws regarding marijuana. Anopioidis one of a category of drugs that includes heroin, morphine, methadone, and codeine. d. both b and c. 2. Five cardinal signs characterize this response: pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function. Recent research (Horikawa, Tamaki, Miyawaki, & Kamitani, 2013) has uncovered new techniques by which researchers may effectively detect and classify the visual images that occur during dreaming by using fMRI for neural measurement of brain activity patterns, opening the way for additional research in this area. Heroin produces intense feelings of euphoria and pleasure, which are amplified when the heroin is injected intravenously. Meditative techniques have their roots in religious practices (Figure 4.21), but their use has grown in popularity among practitioners of alternative medicine. Wakefulnessis characterized by high levels of sensory awareness, thought, and behavior. Evolutionary psychologyis a discipline that studies how universal patterns of behavior and cognitive processes have evolved over time as a result ofnatural selection. Treatment. There is a tremendous amount of variability among sufferers, both in terms of how symptoms of narcolepsy manifest and the effectiveness of currently available treatment options. Still, people experiencing opioid withdrawal may be given methadone to make withdrawal from the drug less difficult. Awareness of internal stimuli includes feeling pain, hunger, thirst, sleepiness, and being aware of our thoughts and emotions. Stage 1 sleepis a transitional phase that occurs between wakefulness and sleep, the period during which we drift off to sleep. For example, repeated use can lead to overall depletion among the monoamine neurotransmitters (dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin). . A) managed care This figure illustrates some of the negative consequences of sleep deprivation. These individual differences in circadian patterns of activity are known as a persons chronotype, and research demonstrates that morning larks and night owls differ with regard to sleep regulation (Taillard, Philip, Coste, Sagaspe, & Bioulac, 2003). A person who has a substance use disorder often uses more of the substance than they originally intended to and continues to use that substance despite experiencing significant adverse consequences. One complete menstrual cycle takes about 28 daysa lunar monthbut many biological cycles are much shorter. Until recently, the United States Department of Justice routinely arrested people involved and seized marijuana used in medicinal settings. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) serves as the brains clock mechanism. Rather, the ISS r ecognizes mixed states and depressive symptoms during manic and hypomanic episodes. Historically, somnambulism has been treated with a variety of pharmacotherapies ranging from benzodiazepines to antidepressants. Feeling tired. Like all opioids, codeine does have abuse potential. Thepineal gland, an endocrine structure located inside the brain that releases melatonin, is thought to be involved in the regulation of various biological rhythms and of the immune system during sleep (Hardeland, Pandi-Perumal, & Cardinali, 2006). By analyzing dreams, Freud thought people could increase self-awareness and gain valuable insight to help them deal with the problems they faced in their lives. The brain waves associated with this stage of sleep are very similar to those observed when a person is awake, as shown inFigure 4.11, and this is the period of sleep in which dreaming occurs. While opioid withdrawal can be extremely unpleasant, it is not life-threatening (Julien, 2005). Infants younger than 12 months appear to be at the highest risk for SIDS, and boys have a greater risk than girls. While hypnosis is generally achieved through the interaction of a therapist and the person being treated, an individual can perform meditation alone. A) a mole that looks cancerous B) nasal congestion C) change in heart rate D) issues with breathing Which of the following American health care systems is most known for requiring a referral from a primary care doctor in order to see a specialist? (Jayanthi & Ramamoorthy, 2005; Rothman, Blough, & Baumann, 2007). Given that withdrawal from a drug often involves an experience opposite to the effect of the drug, it should be no surprise that opioid withdrawal resembles a severe case of the flu. Brain waves during REM sleep appear very similar to brain waves during wakefulness. Codeineis an opioid with relatively low potency. Methamphetamineis a type of amphetamine that can be made from ingredients that are readily available (e.g., medications containing pseudoephedrine, a compound found in many over-the-counter cold and flu remedies). Meditationis the act of focusing on a single target (such as the breath or a repeated sound) to increase awareness of the moment. These kinds of schedules are common for individuals working in health care professions and service industries, and they are associated with persistent feelings of exhaustion and agitation that can make someone more prone to making mistakes on the job (Gold et al., 1992; Presser, 1995). Therefore, no movement of voluntary muscles occurs during REM sleep in a normal individual; REM sleep is often referred to as paradoxical sleep because of this combination of high brain activity and lack of muscle tone. . Methamphetamine addiction produces an intense craving that is difficult to treat. Perhaps our ancestors spent extended periods of time asleep to reduce attention to themselves from potential predators. For example, irritability, distractibility, and impairments in cognitive and moral judgment can occur with fewer than four hours of sleep. Sleep apnea is much more common in overweight people and is often associated with loud snoring. In 2015, the National Sleep Foundation updated their sleep duration hours, to better accommodate individual differences. While we have discussed the negative outcomes associated with sleep deprivation, it should be pointed out that there are many benefits that are associated with adequate amounts of sleep. Module 4: Mood Disorders - Washington State University In addition to withdrawal, many individuals who are diagnosed with substance use disorders will also develop tolerance to these substances. Psychological dependence on these drugs is also possible. These episodes can last 1020 seconds or longer and often are associated with brief periods of arousal. Toleranceis linked to physiological dependence, and it occurs when a person requires more and more drug to achieve effects previously experienced at lower doses. Ahallucinogenis one of a class of drugs that results in profound alterations in sensory and perceptual experiences (Figure 4.18). Aside from their utility as analgesic drugs, opioid-like compounds are often found in cough suppressants, anti-nausea, and anti-diarrhea medications. In Hilgards experiments, he induced participants into a state of hypnosis, and placed their arms into ice water. Sore throat. Thirst. These synthetic drugs are so potent that even small doses can cause overdose and death. Sleep regulationrefers to the brains control of switching between sleep and wakefulness as well as coordinating this cycle with the outside world. Its simply that they feel so overwhelmed and stressed that they cannot fall asleep or stay asleep. (b) Heroin is cooked on a spoon over a candle. Recent adaptations (e.g., Hobson, 2002) continue to update the theory based on accumulating evidence. It is not uncommon for people suffering from undiagnosed or untreated sleep apnea to fear that their careers will be affected by the lack of sleep, illustrated by this statement from another patient, Im in a job where theres a premium on being mentally alert. (a) This is a statue of a meditating Buddha, representing one of the many religious traditions of which meditation plays a part. It is possible that even the processing of emotional information is influenced by certain aspects of sleep (Walker, 2009). In contrast, a person who haspsychological dependencehas an emotional, rather than physical, need for the drug and may use the drug to relieve psychological distress. The 20th century Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung believed that dreams allowed us to tap into the collective unconscious. During periods of emotional arousal, the woman complained that she felt some weakness on the right side of her body. The chapter will close with discussions of altered states of consciousness produced by psychoactive drugs, hypnosis, and meditation. To keep heroin affordable, many dealers began adding more potent synthetic opioids including fentanyl and carfentanyl to increase the effects of heroin. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (Symptoms) | Center for the Treatment It is quite possible that sleep serves no single universally adaptive function, and different species have evolved different patterns of sleep in response to their unique evolutionary pressures. A number of risk factors have been associated with SIDS including premature birth, smoking within the home, and hyperthermia. Upon a search of the premises, police found blood-stained clothes and a bloody knife in the trunk of Falaters car, and he had blood stains on his neck. Sleep apneais defined by episodes during which a sleepers breathing stops. Psychological dependence, or drug craving, is a recent addition to the diagnostic criteria for substance use disorder in DSM-5. The term was first coined by a physiologist named Walter Cannon in 1926. Stage 2 sleep is characterized by the appearance of both sleep spindles and K-complexes. Users experience increased energy, feelings of pleasure, and emotional warmth. The clock sets itself with light information received through projections from the retina. In fact, it has been suggested that there is no reason to think that energetic demands could not be addressed with periods of rest and inactivity (Frank, 2006; Rial et al., 2007), and some research has actually found a negative correlation between energetic demands and the amount of time spent sleeping (Capellini, Barton, McNamara, Preston, & Nunn, 2008). An agonist facilitates the activity of a neurotransmitter system, and antagonists impede neurotransmitter activity. Although she had been taking a prescription antidepressant, her symptoms of depression continued to worsen and she began to suffer physically, displaying significant warning signs of cardiovascular disease and diabetes. The researchers showed that these states correspond to distinct strategies, and then they identified . d. respond to illnesses much like the older adults do. Homeostasis: How the Body Strives for Balance - Verywell Mind Heroin users often shoot the drug directly into their veins. The axons of light-sensitive neurons in the retina provide information to the SCN based on the amount of light present, allowing this internal clock to be synchronized with the outside world (Klein, Moore, & Reppert, 1991; Welsh, Takahashi, & Kay, 2010) (Figure 4.3). Upset stomach and vomiting. Signs of inflammation help healthcare providers in making a diagnosis. Whilecaffeineis generally considered a relatively safe drug, high blood levels of caffeine can result in insomnia, agitation, muscle twitching, nausea, irregular heartbeat, and even death (Reissig, Strain, & Griffiths, 2009; Wolt, Ganetsky, & Babu, 2012). Not able to pass stool or gas. Surprisingly, narcoleptic episodes are often triggered by states of heightened arousal or stress. Despite recent changes in laws designed to make obtaining pseudoephedrine more difficult, methamphetamine continues to be an easily accessible and relatively inexpensive drug option (Shukla, Crump, & Chrisco, 2012). It was getting to the point where it was kind of scary (Henry & Rosenthal, 2013, p. 52). Unlike the other sleep disorders described in this section, a person withnarcolepsycannot resist falling asleep at inopportune times. Stimulant users seek aeuphoric high, feelings of intense elation and pleasure, especially in those users who take the drug via intravenous injection or smoking. Methadoneis a synthetic opioid that is less euphorigenic than heroin and similar drugs. We might also experience unconscious states of being via drug-induced anesthesia for medical purposes. For instance, the concentration of various ions in your blood must be kept steady, along with pH and the concentration of glucose. Some research suggests that sleep deprivation affects cognitive and motor function as much as, if not more than, alcohol intoxication (Williamson & Feyer, 2000). Some circadian rhythms play a role in changes in our state of consciousness. The following morning, he awoke to barking dogs and unfamiliar voices from downstairs. Which of the following was an advance in science and medicine in the18th and 19th centuries? Those who continue to have insomnia, particularly if it affects their quality of life, should seek professional treatment. The first stage of NREM sleep is known as stage 1 sleep. This feeling of a depressed mood is also accompanied by two or more additional symptoms, to include changes in appetite, insomnia or hypersomnia, low energy or fatigue, low self-esteem, feelings of hopelessness, and poor concentration or difficulty with decision making. With excessive alcohol use, a person might experience a complete loss of consciousness and/or difficulty remembering events that occurred during a period of intoxication (McKim & Hancock, 2013). The first three stages of sleep are NREM sleep, while the fourth and final stage of sleep is REM sleep. The following describe internal states of symptoms EXCEPT? According to the dissociation view, hypnosis is effectively a dissociated state of consciousness, much like our earlier example where you may drive to work, but you are only minimally aware of the process of driving because your attention is focused elsewhere. Therefore, it is important to make a distinction between hypnosis as an empirically based therapeutic approach versus as a form of entertainment. You don't have to be a psychologist to know that conditions like hunger or fatigue have an impact on thinking and decision-making; these are examples of internal states. As discussed by Siegel (2008), a definition of sleep must also include mention of the interplay of the circadian and homeostatic mechanisms that regulate sleep. Opium, Heroin, Fentanyl, Morphine, Oxycodone, Vicoden, methadone, and other prescription pain relievers, Decreased pain, pupil dilation, decreased gut motility, decreased respiratory function. Elements that are known to make PTSD more likely are the following: Perceived life threat Personal injury Interpersonal violence, particularly perpetrated by a caregiver Past and present vulnerability, including genetics, childhood trauma, insufficient emotional support, concurrent causes of stress Example: Childhood abuse and rape For example, most people sleep during the night and are awake during the day. This causes blood vessels to dilate, and the skin may feel warm and flushed. When people have difficulty getting sleep due to their work or the demands of day-to-day life, they accumulate a sleep debt. In other words, dreaming involves constructing a virtual reality in our heads that we might use to help us during wakefulness.

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